1. Field of the Invention
The invention relates to a method for forward modeling the spatial distribution faults and fractures in a geologic formation.
2. Background of the Invention
The prediction of faulting and fracturing is very important in oil and gas exploration and production. Seismic data is often used to find faults that bound or delineate hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, due to the limited resolution of seismic data, the details of the faulting in the subsurface may not be determinable.
Knowledge of the distribution of the fractures in a geologic formation is of great importance first for optimizing the location and the spacing between the wells that are to be drilled through an oil formation. Furthermore, the geometry of the fracture network conditions influences the displacement of fluids on the reservoir scale as well as on the local scale, where it determines the elementary matrix blocks in which the oil is trapped. Knowledge of the distribution of the fractures is thus also very useful at a later stage for the reservoir engineer who wants to extrapolate the production curves and to calibrate the models simulating reservoirs. The development of naturally fractured reservoirs thus requires better knowledge of the geometry of the fracture networks and of their contribution to the orientation of the flows.
Seismic data are commonly used for acquiring information about the subsurface of the Earth. Changes in the elastic properties of subsurface rocks appear as seismic reflections. Such changes in the properties of the rocks typically occur at boundaries between geologic formations, at fractures and at faults. The vertical resolution of the seismic method is approximately one-quarter wavelength of the seismic wave and, in typical situations, is of the order of 10 meters. The horizontal resolution is determined by the size of the Fresnel zone for the seismic wave at the depth of interest and may be tens or even hundreds of meters. By using sophisticated processing techniques, such as prestack migration taking advantage of data redundancy, the positions of the seismic reflectors may be more accurately determined up to the spacing of the geophones. Nevertheless, it is only the major seismic reflectors that may be determined by this method. Additional information about finer scale faulting and fracturing would be very useful in predicting flow characteristics of a hydrocarbon reservoir and in development of a program for optimization of hydrocarbon recovery. Since all faults are not clearly delineated by the seismic, it would also be useful to verify the location of faults that are difficult to see seismically are interpreted in a consistent manner.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,953,680 issued to Divies et al describes a method for creating a two-dimensional (2-D) kinematic model of a geologic basin affected by faults. The basin is divided into a number of layers or banks whose geometric positions are known. The tectonic deformation of each modeled layer is determined separately by taking its thickness and length into account, with compaction being taken into account. The basic assumption is that the banks are competent units that undergo little deformation. The method does not include the material properties of the rocks as part of the input and hence is not particularly well suited for determining the effects of loading.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,838,634 issued to Jones et al obtains geologic models of the subsurface that are optimized to match as closely as feasible geologic constraints known or derived from observed geologic data. The models also conform to geophysically based constraints indicated by seismic survey data. It accounts for geophysical information by converting the geologic model to synthetic seismic traces, accounting for fluid saturation, and comparing these traces with observed seismic trace data. The process perturbs the rock properties in the geologic model until the geologic model is consistent with geologic and geophysical data and interpretations. However, the issue of how to obtain a reasonable fine-scale geologic model is not addressed.
Broadly speaking, four different ways have been used to model the problem of geologic modeling of the subsurface on a wide range of scales. The first approach is to use statistics to capture the number and orientation of faults at one scale or in one deformational setting and to use simple statistical rules to extrapolate this information to other scales or deformational settings. An example of this is U.S. Pat. No. 5,659,135 to Cacas.
A second method that has been used is to use finite element modeling to solve the stress field from given input deformations. Once stress exceeds a given amount a fault or fracture is drawn in by hand and then the model simulation can continue. Alternatively, faulting patterns are put in by hand, and the formation is pressured up to estimate a stress distribution. The rock is modeled is a network of distinct elastic elements, connected by elastic connection to its outer boundaries. The main obstacles to the application of such methods for geologic modeling are the computer time and the human interaction that is involved. The computer time roughly increases as the square of the number of nodes in the model and the models must be continuously interacted with by the user to put in new faults as they are believed to have occurred.
In a third method, large scale rules of geometry or faulting seen in the subsurface under certain deformation conditions are quantified and applied to forward modeling software. These forward models usually consist of a well-defined set of large scale shapes that are expected to be produced. An example of this is U.S. Pat. No. 5,661,698 issued to Cacas, which starts out with a group of major faults detected by means of an exploration of the zone, and additional minor faults that have not been detected during the exploration. The fractal characteristics of the major faults are determined and the additional minor faults are constrained to have the same fractal characteristics. The fractal characteristics used include the fractal dimension of the fault network and a density function defining a distribution of lengths of the faults. Such a method does not account for differences in the rock properties of different geologic formations and differences in their mode of faulting.
A fourth method that has been used is the so-called “distinct element model.” It uses small scale rules of stress and strain to move nodes in a model to predict faulting and fracturing. It is well suited for problems of geologic fracturing but suffers from the drawback of being computationally slow. In addition, the methods are not particularly user friendly in terms of user interface used for specification of the model and of the material properties.
There is a need for all invention that is able to simulate faulting and fracturing on a variety of scales in a subsurface geological model. Such an invention should preferably take into account the differences in material strength of different types of rocks. Such an invention should also be computationally fast. In addition, it is preferable that the invention should be user friendly in that specification of the rock properties and loading be easily input and that the invention be able to provide graphical displaces of the deformation process. The present invention satisfies this need.